LITERATURE

Russel, F. 1985. The Pima Indians. University Arizona Press, Tucson.

1) Papago: Used fibers to make a twisted cordage.

2) Archaeological site: Frightful Cave in Coahuilla: Ixtle cordage, sandals, and burial sticks were found dating back a couple of thousand years.

LITERATURE

Castetter, E. F., and R. M. Underhill. 1935. The ethnobiology of the Papago. University New Mexico Bulletin, Oct.

Worthington, R. D. 1998. Syllabus of "Plants in Southwest cultures", Biology 3341. Unpublished paper. El Paso, Texas.

1) Hopi: The stalk and fibers were used ceremoniously in firemaking.

FOOD

1) Havasupai: They roasted the young stalks; baked buds were mixed with water to produce mescal.

2) Hopi: Received pit-baked leaves and buds as trade items from the Havasupai.

3) Tarahumara: Cooked the agave juice to make mescal (wine).

4) Mescalero Apache: Baked the agave hearts in special stone pits.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1) The Mescalero Apache derived their name from this plant (Spanish gift).

2) Mescal trade; ancient commerce origins in Cordova Cave 300-11000 C.E.

3) The Havasupai altered the agave flower bud growth by placing stones on them.

LITERATURE

Ebeling, W. 1986. Handbook of Indian foods and fibers of arid America. University California Press, Los Angeles.

Farrer, C. R. 1991. Living life's circle: Mescalero Apache cosmovision. University New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Schlett, S. F. 1995. The ethnobotanic practice of the Hopi people. Thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso.

1) Maya: The plant was boiled and used for pleurisy as a hot application; a decoction was used for coughs, asthma, and for diarrhea. Additionally, a poultice of this plant was placed directly on the abdomen for colic.

2) Spanish New Mexicans: A tea from this plant that was used for stomach aches, side pains, and small amounts were given to babies for diarrhea and vomiting. Older people would sometimes make larger quantities of the tea and bathe in it.

LITERATURE

Curtin, L. S. M. 1997. Healing herbs of the Rio Grande: Traditional medicine of the Southwest (Michael Moore, ed.). Western Edge Press, Sante Fe.

1) Pima: Used the branches of the saltbush to cover (shade) tobacco seeds.

FOOD

1) Hopi: Fresh greens boiled with meat for flavoring.

2) Papago: Small greens used fresh as food.

3) Pima: Nutritious meal made from the parched seeds of various saltbushes, the leaves and young shoots were used as fresh greens, and other food could be seasoned with the saltbush by boiling some of the greens in it.

LITERATURE

Castetter, E. F., and W. H. Bell. 1942. Pima and Papago Indian agriculture. University New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Ebeling, W. 1986. Handbook of Indian foods and fibers of arid America. University California Press, Los Angeles.

1) Cahuilla: Wood used in house construction, in the making of granaries to store mesquite beans, acorns, and other foods. Wood used in bow construction, used as a frame to hold ollas, and the tree itself was comfortable shade and provided a nice camping area. The fibrous material of the bark used in making nets, shirts, and breechclouts, and the long limbs were used to reach high-up fruits and nuts.

LITERATURE

Bean, L. J., and K. S. Saubel. 1972. Temalpakh: Cahuilla Indian knowledge and usage of plants. Rubidoux Printing Company, Riverside.

1) Kickapoo:Used this plant as cordage for sewing cattail mats and in tying saplings for housing construction.

2) Papago: Dasylirion used for making extremely large, 6 by 3 foot sleeping mats; also cradleboard mats, back mats for the carrying frame, and other basket construction. In addition to very large sleeping mats, they also constructed enclosure mats for storage of grain and for enclosing the rain-calling ceremonial area.

3) Zuni: Utilized this plant in the construction of winnowing baskets.

FOOD

1) Papago: The flower stalks were eaten as greens, boiled or cooked buried in the ashes.

LITERATURE

Castetter, E. F., and W. H. Bell. 1942. Pima and Papago Indian agriculture. University New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Castetter, E. F., and R. M. Underhill. 1935. The ethnobiology of the Papago. University New Mexico Bulletin, Oct.

Ebeling, W. 1986. Handbook of Indian foods and fibers in arid America. University California Press, Los Angeles.

Worthington, R. D. 1998. Syllabus of "Plants in Southwest cultures", Biology 3341. Unpublished paper. El Paso, Texas.

1) Cahuilla: Used fresh or dry twigs and boiled for tea which was a very popular drink. Also, seeds ground into a meal which was then made into a mush.

2) Panamint: Seeds ground into a flour which was then used to make bitter breads or cakes.

3) Papago: Used this plant to make a tea.

LITERATURE

Castetter, E. F., and R. M. Underhill. 1935. The ethnobiology of the Papago. University New Mexico Bulletin, Oct.

Eberling, W. 1986. Handbook of Indian foods and fibers of arid America. University California Press, Los Angeles.

1) Pima: Made decoction from stems and used as an antiluetic (anti-syphilitic).

2) Mescalero Apache: Made decoction from the entire plant and used as an antiblenorrhagic.

3) Spanish New Mexicans: Decoction tea used to reduce fever and to relieve kidney pain. Also, used as a treatment to counteract venereal disease. The recipe is: First, boil a handful of the plant in a quart of water, then strain through a cloth. Second, drink one glass of this tea (hot) at least three times a day, about 1 hour before meals. Third, when the pain is gone, one must eat a chopped red onion three times before meals for approximately 6 to 8 days.

FOOD

1) Navajo: Used for a hot tea; first the stems were roasted, then boiled.

LITERATURE

Curtin, L. S. M. 1997. Healing herbs of the Upper Rio Grande: Traditional medicine of the Southwest (Michael Moore, ed.). Western Edge Press, Sante Fe.

Elmore, F. H. 1976. Shrubs and trees of the Southwest Uplands. Southwest Parks and Monument Association, Globe.

Worthington, R. D. 1998. Syllabus of "Plants in Southwest cultures", Biology 3341. Unpublished paper. El Paso, Texas.

1) Navajo: Used the tops of the plant to boil into a cough medicine.

OTHER PRODUCTS

1) Navajo: Used this plant for a light tan dye.

LITERATURE

Elmore, F. H. 1976. Shrubs and trees of the Southwest Uplands. Southwest Parks and Monument Association, Globe.

Worthington, R. D. 1998. Syllabus of "Plants in Southwest cultures", Biology 3341. Unpublished paper. El Paso, Texas.

1) San Ildefonso Pueblo: The women steeped the leaves of this plant in water until the leaves were softened, and then the hair was washed in it to promote growth.

2) Spanish New Mexicans: The women boiled the roots to use as a final hair rinse to prevent hair from falling out.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1) Some Spanish New Mexicans used this plant to counter "bewitchment" spells. The plumes were ground with sangre de venado, rock salt, and fireplace soot. The whole preparation was then put into a wine (only the kind of wine that Catholic priests drink before breakfast); they then drank the whole concoction. It is said that this is to drive away evil.

LITERATURE

Curtin, L. S. M. 1997. Healing herbs of the Upper Rio Grande: Traditional medicine of the Southwest (Michael Moore, ed.). Western Edge Press, Sante Fe.

1) Chippewa and Ottawa: Used a decoction of the whole plant as a dysenteric.

2) Spanish New Mexicans: Roots chewed for healthy teeth and also used as a decoction to quell diarrhea and for the second stage of dysentery.

LITERATURE

Curtin, L. S. M. 1997. Healing herbs of the Rio Grande: Traditional medicine of the Southwest (Michael Moore, ed.). Western Edge Press, Sante Fe.

1) Cahuilla: Used primarily for medicinal purposes: it was a cure for toothaches, a solution was made as a gargle for sore throats, and parts of this plant were placed directly inside the mouth of the patient to alleviate the pain therein.

LITERATURE

Bean, L. J., and K. S. Saubel. 1972. Temalpakh: Cahuilla Indian knowledge and usage of plants. Rubidoux Printing Company, Riverside.

1) Apache: Used poultices for rheumatism.

2) Maricopa: Used bark for intestinal troubles.

3) Papago: Among the Papago pharmacy, this plant is the most universal remedy; some of their uses include relief for stiff limbs; sore muscles; snake, spider, or scorpion bites; healing and ease of discomfort for women after childbirth; skin sores (human and domestic animals); and as an emetic.

4) Pima: Chew and swallow gum as anti-dysenteric.

5) Seri: Women use this for contraceptive purposes.

6) Spanish: Used for sick cattle and horses' saddle sores.

7) Yavapai: Steamed branches used for lying-in women for 4 days after childbirth. Also, use as a decoction against internal chills and colds.

CEREMONIAL

1) Papago: Considered a "sacred" plant. Papago cosmology: Earth Maker took soil from his breast and cikoi was the first green thing to grow. Also used to make gourd rattle handles.

2) Papago and Pima: Used to make tattoo ink. Also used to paint masks.

ENTERTAINMENT

1) Papago: Wood used to make sticks for "hand-game".

OTHER PRODUCTS

1) Papago: Wood used to hold stone arrows; wood tips hardened in a fire and used as a single point to hunt small game; wood stakes used for stretching hides out on the ground; drill sticks used in fire-making; branches used for spine removal of Opuntia fruits; branches stuck in the ground used to shade growing tobacco plants; wood used in construction of gathering poles used to obtain saguaro fruits.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1) "King Clone". An enormous specimen is in Johnson Valley, California (near Los Angeles). It is 25 x 75 feet, and it has been determined to be a single bush. It is dated as about 12,000 years old, with the most conservative dating at 9,400 years.

2) In 1962, at Yucca Flat, Nevada, a thermonuclear explosion was detonated. All vegetation was seemingly destroyed. An ecologist, 10 years later, discovered that 20 of the original 21 creosote had resprouted.

LITERATURE

Castetter, E. F., and R. M. Underhill. 1935. The ethnobiology of the Papago. University New Mexico Bulletin, Oct.

Nabhan, G. R. 1985. Gathering the desert. University Arizona Press, Tucson.

Worthington, R. D. 1998. Syllabus of "Plants in Southwest cultures", Biology 3341. Unpublished paper. El Paso, Texas.

1) Spanish New Mexicans: Used for sore throats: the dry root of the maravilla was scraped and the scrapings were rolled in a cigarette paper; the smoke of that "cigarette" was then blown into the throat.

2) Tewa: The roots were ground to make an infusion for swellings.

3) Zuni: Men would gather the roots of this plant and give them to the women who would then grind them into a powder and mix it with hot or cold water to counter the effects of overeating. Also, a pinch of the powdered root was put into a dinner drink as a means to reduce overeating in young men.

LITERATURE

Curtin, L. S. M. 1997. Healing herbs of the Rio Grande: Traditional medicine of the Southwest (Michael Moore, ed.). Western Edge Press, Sante Fe.

1) Papago: Used tobacco smoke as a purifying agent and also used in medicine healing ceremonies.

CEREMONIAL

1) Cahuilla: Consider this a "sacred plant": this was one of the first plants created by the god "Mukat". The Cahuilla chewed, smoked, or used this plant in a drinkable decoction for ritualistic, shamanistic, medicinal, or other purposes.

2) Hopi: The Hopi used a smoking mixture of N. trigonophylla, Populus tremuloides var. aurea (aspen), Pinus ponderosa (ponderosa pine), and spruce for ceremonial purposes.

3) Mojave and Yuma: Both smoked the leaves of this plant.

4) Papago: The plant was dried and smoked in a "carrizo" stem or in an inner white corn husk.

ENTERTAINMENT

1) Cocopa and Maricopa: According to Ebeling (1986), some members of these tribes sometimes smoked for pleasure.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1) Both Castetter and Underhill (1935) and Ebeling (1986) cite the smoking of N. trigonophylla in the tubular internodes of the immature stalk of a cane reed (Phragmites australis, and P. communis). According to Ebeling, the Papago use of cornhusk cigarettes was unknown until post-contact times.

LITERATURE

Castetter, E. F., and R. M. Underhill. 1935. The ethnobiology of the Papago. University New Mexico Bulletin, Oct.

Eberling, W. 1986. Handbook of Indian foods and fibers of arid America. University California Press, Los Angeles.

Schlett, S. F. 1995. The ethnobotanic practice of the Hopi people." Thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso.

1) Papago: This plant was chiefly used as material in basket construction. Nolina was utilized as a foundation element in baskets of all sizes, including the 3-foot tall granary baskets. Nolina also was used in agave-heart cooking pits as moistened material to cushion and steam the hearts.

LITERATURE

Castetter, E. F., and R. M. Underhill. 1935. The ethnobiology of the Papago. University New Mexico Bulletin, Oct.

Eberling, W. 1986. Handbook of Indian foods and fibers of arid America. University California Press, Los Angeles.

Worthington, R. D. 1998. Syllabus of "Plants in Southwest Cultures." Biology 3341. Unpublished paper. El Paso.

1) Cahuilla: The leaves were gathered fresh and used as greens. The caterpillar of the white line sphinx moth (Celerio lineata) was one of the Cahuilla's favorite foods. The Cahuilla name for this insect is "piyakhtem", and it is said that they taste similar to pork rinds. The following preparation for the caterpillars is given: First chop off the head, then clean out the insides, and then boil, parboil, or dry in the sun.

LITERATURE

Bean, L. J., and K. S. Saubel. 1972. Temalpakh: Cahuilla Indian knowledge and usage of plants. Rubidoux Printing Company, Riverside.

1) Aztec: Used for eye ailments, as an astringent, and to restrain excessive menses.

2) Cocopa: First 4 days following birth--inner bark decoction used as newborn tonic (small amount).

3) Comanche: Used for eye ailment and as antacid.

4) Mescalero Apache: Eye ailment uses.

5) Paipai: Eye ailment, smallpox, measles, and emetic.

6) Papago: Eye ailment, chronic indigestion, internal anti-spasmodic uses. Note: few uses of P. glandulosa, but extensive use of P. velutina.

7) Pima: Used as "bleach" for severe sunburn and for eye ailment, sore throat, respiratory afflictions, open wound disinfectant, diarrhea, stomach disorders, and as an emetic. Powdered mesquite bark was mixed with sand to dry the umbilical cord of newborn.

8) Seri: Eye ailment, laxative, and emetic.

9) Yuma (Quechan): Relieve painful micturition, and emetic.

CEREMONIAL

1) Papago: Mesquite bean used ceremoniously in their harvest festival.

2) Seri: Black face-paint ingredient.

3) Yuma (Quechan): Mesquite thorns used for tattoo needles; charcoal used as tattoo ink.

4) Yavapai: Used black gum to clean and dye hair--abstinence practiced while "plaster" was on hair for 2 to 4 days.

ENTERTAINMENT

1) Cocopa: Wood used to make balls for games.

2) Papago: Made wood balls for games.

3) Seri: Made rolled hoops for games.

OTHER PRODUCTS

1) Seri: wood used as pestle for pounding pods, also for fuel wood.

2) Papago: Dwelling construction, fence construction, and fuel wood. Used bark for weft in granary baskets.

3) Pima: Wood used to make shovels, awls for weaving baskets, bread trays, ladles, and wood handle for rope twister.

FOOD

1) Cahuilla: Roasted mesquite flowers, pressed into balls, stored, later eaten after boiling.

2) Mescalero Apache: Beans are one of the traditional foods eaten for breakfast by female puberty initiates.

3) Pima: In precontact time, mesquite was almost the most important wild food in Pima diet. Used for puddings, breads, beverages, candy made from white mesquite gum, and they ate flowers.

4) Papago: Used to make breads, beverages, stored pods in granary baskets.

5) Seri: Toasted pods before pounding; mesocarp ground into flour mixed with water to make dough; seeds separated (40% protein) from endocarp and made into flour. Sweet drinks made from pods (33% sugar). "Seri say that food from mesquite makes children fat and their skin light in color (both desirable traits to Seri)" (Simpson, 1977).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1) In time of famine many desert peoples (Papago, Pima, Yuma, etc.) would raid packrat nests. These rodents store pods underground in separate piles (different foods were separated) and, if the hunter was lucky, the rat would accompany the pods to the pot. 2) When equines and bovines feed on mesquite pods, seeds passing through the animals' intestinal tract have a higher germination rate.

LITERATURE

Castetter, E. F., and W. H. Bell. 1942. Pima and Papago Indian agriculture. University New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Nabhan, G. R. 1985. Gathering the desert. University Arizona Press, Tucson.

Russel, F. 1977 (1980 reprint). The Pima Indians. University Arizona Press, Tucson.

Simpson, B.B. (ed.). 1977. Mesquite, its biology in two desert ecosystems. International Biological Program, Synthesis Series 4.

Worthington, R. D. 1998. Syllabus of "Plants in Southwest cultures", Biology 3341. Unpublished paper. El Paso.

1) Pima: The bark was used for wound dressings, powdered and boiled.

FOOD

1) Pima: The screwbeans were placed in layers alternating with cocklebur leaves. The pit was then covered with earth for 3 to 4 days. Then, the beans were taken out and spread to dry. When dry, they were either placed into arrowbush baskets, or they were used promptly. The common method was to grind the dried beans in a mortar; then the flour was made into pinole, or breads. Screwbean was a main supplemental food for the Pima. Additionally, the mesquite catkins were eaten fresh, stripped from the stems between the teeth. A white gum (sap) was used in candy making, and the inner bark was sometimes used as a rennet substitute.

LITERATURE

Castetter, E. F., and W. H. Bell. 1942. Pima and Papago Indian agriculture. University New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Eberling, W. 1986. Handbook of Indian foods and fibers of arid America. University California Press, Los Angeles.

Russel, F. 1985. The Pima Indians. University Arizona Press, Tucson.

1) Hopi: This wood is used as one of the construction materials for making prayer sticks. This wood is also used for one of the traditional woods in the sacred kiva fire.

OTHER PRODUCTS

1) Apache 2) Coahuilla 3) Hopi 4) Panamint 5) Paiute 6) Navajo

All of these tribes utilized this plant for complete basket construction. First, the peeled branches are used for the warp, then branches are split into three strands (pith and bark removed); these flat, tough strands are used for the weft and sewing material in coiled basket construction. The Navajo also used the leaves and berries of this plant to make a black dye.

7) Zuni: The stems with the bark removed were used for basket making.

FOOD

1) Apache: Made a bread from the ground-up berries.

2) Tewa: They ate the whole fruits (which are red, not white), or they ground them up for other food uses.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1) The Kickapoo crushed the berries in water, then added more water plus sugar to make a delightful cold drink. The Mescalero Apache: also ate the berries.

LITERATURE

Curtin, L. S. M. 1997. Healing herbs of the Upper Rio Grande: Traditional medicine of the Southwest (Michael Moore, ed.). Western Edge Press, Sante Fe.

Eberling, W. 1986. Handbook of Indian foods and fibers of arid America. University California Press, Los Angeles.

Schlett, S. F. 1995. The ethnobotanic practice of the Hopi people." Thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso.

Worthington, R. D. 1998. Syllabus of "Plants in Southwest cultures", Biology 3341. Unpublished paper. El Paso.

1) Hopi: Considered a wild staple of the Hopi diet, the seeds were used to make a finely ground meal. S. cryptandrus also was considered an important wild staple food. The seeds were ground up with maize to make into cakes.

LITERATURE

Eberling, W. 1986. Handbook of Indian foods and fibers of arid America. University California Press, Los Angeles.

Schlett, S. F. 1995. The ethnobotanic practice of the Hopi people. Thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso.

1) Pima: Hairbrushes were made from sacaton grass roots.

FOOD

1) Papago: They would burn a whole patch of this grass, then sweep the seeds off of the ground. Seeds are parched by being placed in a flat basket with a few embers, and this is shaken constantly to prevent the burning of the seeds.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1) Sacaton is the name of one of the Pima reservations.

LITERATURE

Castetter, E. F., and W. H. Bell. 1942. Pima and Papago Indian agriculture. University New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Castetter, E. F., and R. M. Underhill. 1935. The ethnobiology of the Papago. University New Mexico Bulletin, Oct.

Russel, F. 1985. The Pima Indians. University Arizona Press, Tucson.

1) Pima: The fruits were eaten raw as a cathartic.

2) Hopi: Fruits were baked in earthen ovens and then used as a laxative.

CEREMONIAL

1) Mescalero Apache: Fruits are gifted to female puberty rite initiates; the Singer gives this to his "daughter".

OTHER PRODUCTS

1) Hopi: The juice of this yucca was used for the varnishing of kachinas.

2) Papago: Split leaves were used for weft of wrapped weaving projects; leaves were also utilized as foundation material in coiled basketry construction.

FOOD

1) Cochiti and Zuni: Both considered this fruit a great luxury. It was eaten raw or first boiled and then skinned and eaten.

2) Hopi: Fruits were eaten dry, roasted, or raw. Flowers were also eaten, with the white blossoms preferred.

3) Maricopa: Ate the fresh fruits, but also dried and stored them for future use.

4) Navajo: The fruits were eaten raw or cooked. They were dried for storage by placing fruits on flat stones near fire. When they were dry, they were often ground, then kneaded into small cakes for storing.

5) Mescalero Apache: Flowers were eaten, and young leaves were cooked in soups or with meats.

6) Papago: This was an important staple crop. The fruits were eaten fresh, or the fresh fruits were made into a gruel. Also, the seeds were removed by hand and the pulp ground on a metate (cornmeal was first rubbed on the metate and the muller to prevent sticking). The seeds were then dried by spreading them onto saguaro ribs in the sun; when they were perfectly dry, they were beaten on a mat to remove the fiber, then stored in granary baskets, and later they were ground into a meal. The pulp was patted into cakes and dried on hot stones; they then were dried further by spreading on the house roof in the sun. When dried thoroughly, they were stored in jars for later use.

7) Pima: The fruits were always gathered in August by the men. Fruits could be boiled, dried, and then ground on stone and boiled with flour to make a gruel.

8) San Felipe: Partly cooked fruits formed a thick substance that was dried and stored for future use.

COSMETIC

1) Pima: Yucca baccata stems were reduced to pulp and used as a soap. Yucca elata also was used for soap.

LITERATURE

Castetter, E. F., and W. H. Bell. 1942. Pima and Papago Indian agriculture. University New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Castetter, E. F., and R. M. Underhill. 1935. The ethnobiology of the Papago. University New Mexico Bulletin, Oct.

Eberling, W. 1986. Handbook of Indian foods and fibers of arid America. University California Press, Los Angeles.

Farrer, C. R. 1991. Living life's circle: Mescalero Apache cosmovision. University New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Russel, F. 1985. The Pima Indians. University Arizona Press, Tucson. Schlett, S. F. 1995. The ethnobotanic practice of the Hopi people. Thesis, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso.